21. The History Of Zero YaleGlobal Online Magazine Zero reached Baghdad by 773 AD and would be developed in the Middle East by Arabian mathematicians who would base their numbers on the Indian system. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp

22. Cube - LoveToKnow 1911 These problems were also attacked by the Arabian mathematicians; Tobit ben Korra (836901) is credited with a solution, while Abul Gud solved it by means of a parabola and an http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cube

Cube From LoveToKnow 1911 CUBE (Gr. Kb(30s, a cube), in geometry , a solid bounded by six equal squares, so placed that the angle between any pair of adjacent faces is a right angle. This solid played an all-important part in the geometry and cosmology of the Greeks. Plato Timaeus ) described the figure in the following terms: - "The isosceles triangle which has its vertical angle a right angle. .. combined in sets of four, with the right angles meeting at the centre, form a single square. Six of these squares joined together formed eight solid angles, each produced by three plane right angles: and the shape of the body thus formed was cubical, having six square planes for its surfaces." In his cosmology Plato assigned this solid to "earth," for "` earth ' is the least mobile of the four (elements - ' fire,' ` water,' ` air ' and ` earth ') and most plastic of bodies: and that substance must possess this nature in the highest degree which has its bases most stable ." The mensuration of the cube, and its relations to other geometrical solids are treated in the article Polyhedron ; in the same article are treated the Archimedean solids, the truncated and snubcube; reference should be made to the article

23. Math Lair - Arabic Math History Arabian mathematicians adopt what we now call the Arabic number system. This system was imported from India. 820 A.D. Al Khowarizmi (his name is where the English word algorithm http://ajy.stormloader.com/arab.html

Free Hosting Drug Rehab Free Web Hosting Best Credit Cards Arabic Math History View a note on these timelines When the Arabs conquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt, they inherited much of the Greco-Roman mathematical heritage and did a good job of preserving it. While the Arab civilisation declined in the second millennium of the Christian Era due to waves of Turkish and Mongol invaders (and fundamentalist Moroccan invaders in Spain), their enthusiasm for mathematics survived long enough to be passed to Christian Spain and from there to Italy and the rest of Europe. 750 A.D. Arabian mathematicians adopt what we now call the Arabic number system . This system was imported from India. 820 A.D. Al Khowarizmi (his name is where the English word "algorithm" (see glossary ) comes from) makes significant advances in algebra. 875 A.D. Thabit ibn Qurra writes his Book on the Determination of Amicable Numbers 1000 A.D. Alhazen states that light travels from visible objects to the eyes, not vice versa. This discovery is a significant step towards the theory of perspective. 1100 A.D.

24. Kids And Teens » School Time » Math » History (alphabet): ABC Directory Kids and Teens School Time - Math - History Explains contributions of Arabian mathematicians by translating early Greek texts, developing early algebraic ideas, number theory http://www.abc-directory.com/category/1315396/alphabet.html

25. Ivars Peterson's MathTrek - Chemical Dissections In the 10th century, Arabian mathematicians described several dissections in their commentaries on Euclid's Elements. The 18thcentury Chinese scholar Tai Chen presented an elegant http://www.maa.org/mathland/mathtrek_01_27_03.html

Ivars Peterson's MathTrek January 27, 2003 Chemical Dissections In recreational mathematics, a geometric dissection involves cutting a geometric figure into pieces that you can reassemble into another figure. For example, it's possible to slice a square into four angular pieces that can be rearranged into an equilateral triangle. The same four pieces can be assembled into a square or an equilateral triangle. Such puzzles have been around for thousands of years. The problem of dissecting two equal squares to form one larger square using four pieces dates back to at least the time of the Greek philosopher Plato (427 BC BC ). In the 10th century, Arabian mathematicians described several dissections in their commentaries on Euclid's Elements Dissections can get quite elaborate: A seven-pointed star becomes two heptagons; a dodecagon turns into three identical squares; and so on. You can also add constraints. For example, the pieces can be attached to one another by hinges. In the square-triangle dissection, the hinged pieces form a sort of chain. When closed in one direction, the pieces settle snugly into a square; when closed in the other direction, they fold into a triangle. (For an animated version of this dissection, see http://www.lsus.edu/sc/math/rmabry/live3d/hinged-triangle-square.htm

26. Algorism: Facts, Discussion Forum, And Encyclopedia Article Starting with the integer arithmetic developed in India using base 10 notation, Arabian mathematicians documented new arithmetic methods and made many other contributions to http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Algorism

Home Discussion Topics Dictionary ... Login Algorism Algorism Topic Home Discussion Definition Discussion Ask a question about ' Algorism Start a new discussion about ' Algorism Answer questions from other users Full Discussion Forum Encyclopedia Algorism is the technique of performing basic arithmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic or arithmetics is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics, used by almost everyone, for tasks ranging from simple day-to-day counting to advanced science and business calculations. It involves the study of quantity, especially as the result of combining numbers... by writing numbers in place value form and applying a set of memorized rules and facts Mathematical table to the digits. One who practices algorism is known as an algorist . This system largely superseded earlier calculation systems that used a different set of symbols for each numerical magnitude Magnitude (mathematics) The magnitude of a mathematical object is its size: a property by which it can be compared as larger or smaller than other objects of the same kind; in technical terms, an ordering of the class of objects to which it belongs.... and in some cases required a device such as an abacus Abacus The abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarily in parts of Asia for performing arithmetic processes. Today, abacuses are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets...

27. The History Of The Fifth Postulate The Birth Of Non Euclidean Posterior evolution of the study of the Fifth Postulate The Arabian Mathematicians The Arabian domination began with the escape of Mahomet from La Meca to Medina 622 A.D. Arabians http://cerezo.pntic.mec.es/mgarc144/marcohistoria/The Fifth Postulate.pdf

28. The Magic Of Nines This test was invented by Arabian mathematicians in the 8th century, that makes this relatively new compared to other mathematics (E.g. ancient Greece Egypt) http://home.c2i.net/greaker/comenius/prepare/9798/nine_2.htm

THE MAGIC OF NINES Written by Espen Hænes Kristiansen, Magnus Kristiansen and Øystein Myksvoll Lande Through the history of mathematics it has been claimed that the number nine has some mysterious properties. To Joe Public this may seem pretty absurd. Magical possibilities is something we link to David Copperfield, and not a number. There are probably several reasons why the number 9 has earned this reputation. Here we will deal with two of them. These are practical examples of what you can use the number 9 to. The examples we will work with is called "The test of nines" and "The table of nines". "THE TABLE OF NINES" First we will show you the table of nines (multiplication), which has this special look: When we look at this table we can see the construction of it is very simple. The last number in every number is the counting from 9-0. The next number goes from 0-9 and so on. The third number also goes from 0-9, but this time each number is used 10 times. Using this technique it is possible to find all the numbers in the table of nines without calculating them. This is what is called the "beautiful table of nines". But is this special for the number 9, what about other numbers? Here are some other tables: From these results it is possible to make different conclusions. The table of nines is special, and its table is built in a very simple way. But at the same time several other numbers makes special multiplication tables. The number nine is special, but can we call it magic? In our eyes, no.

29. 8th Century Timeline: 701 To 800 750 Arabian mathematicians begin using numbers that originated in India, are an advance of Roman numerals and that Muslims will pass to Europeans. http://www.fsmitha.com/time/ce08.htm

home 6th to 15th centuries timeline-index timeline 601-700 ... timeline 801-900 8th Century Timeline: 701 to 800 Drawing from the Chinese and Confucianism, the Japanese have established new laws the Taiho Code. The emperor is seen as having supreme moral authority, a benevolent ruler, with moral ministers and bureaucrats, to whose authority otherwise feuding local lords should submit for the sake of peace. And, accompanying this centralized authority, a national tax system is devised. Empress Wu has proclaimed a new dynasty of her own family line. She has lowered taxes for farmers, and agricultural production has risen. She has strengthened public works. But by 705 she is in her old age and has lost control at court. Officicals at court force her to reisgn in favor of a member of the Tang family the return of the Tang Dynasty. In China, boiled war is safer to drink than untreated water, and tea becomes popular accompanied by the belief that tea has medicinal properties. Nara A Muslim army crosses the Strait of Gibraltar and begins a conquest of Spain. Jews welcome them as liberators. An Arab ship is plundered by pirates near the mouth of the Indus River, and the Arab governor in Mesopotamia retaliates, sending an expedition, said to include 6,000 horses and 6,000 camels, to conquer the rajas of Sind The new Tang emperor, Zhongzong, has died and his wife, Empress Wei, is suspected of having poisoned him. She has tried to rule as had Empress Wu. She has sold offices and Buddhist monkhoods. She has created enemies whom she has failed to exterminate, and they oust her from power.

30. Algorism Arabian mathematicians made many contributions (including the concept of the decimal fractions as an extension of the notation), and the written European form of the digits is http://www.fact-index.com/a/al/algorism.html

Main Page See live article Alphabetical index Algorism Algorism is the name for the Indo-Arabic decimal system of writing and working with numbers, in which symbols (the ten digits through 9) are used to describe values using a place value system, where each symbol has ten times the weight of the one to its right. This system was originally invented in India in the 6th century AD (or earlier), and was soon adopted in the Arab world. Arabian mathematicians made many contributions (including the concept of the decimal fractions as an extension of the notation), and the written European form of the digits is derived from the ghubar (sand-table or dust-table) numerals used in north-west Africa and Spain. The word algorism comes from the Arabic al-Khwarizmi (“the one from Khwarizm”), the cognomen (nickname) of an early-9th-century mathematician, possibly from what is now Khiva in western Uzbekistan. (From whose name also comes the word algorithm Fact-index.com financially supports the Wikimedia Foundation. Displaying this page does not burden Wikipedia hardware resources. This article is from Wikipedia . All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

31. Square Root Summary | BookRags.com Borrowing much from Hindu mathematics, Arabian mathematicians continued working with irrational number operations. It is the Middle Eastern mathematician alKhwarizmi who developed http://www.bookrags.com/research/square-root-wsd/

32. Ancient Egyptian Science, Alchemy, Page 5 From Spain, however, the classical culture preserved by Syrian scholars and by them transmitted to Arab scholars, found its way to Europe, and Arabian mathematicians http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-egyptian-science-alchemy-page-5.html

Ancient Egyptian Science, Alchemy. Ancient Egypt pages: Similar pages: egyptian ideas of matter schools of alchemy ancient egyptian authors ancient ideas on matter arabian translations ancient egypt lasting effects How to Link to This Page To link to this page from your website, simply cut and paste the following code to your web page. It will appear on your page as: Ancient Egyptian Science, Alchemy, page 5 from www.lost-civilizations.net Search In 389 A.D. the Serapion of Alexandria was destroyed, and its library destroyed or scattered under an edict of Theodosius calling for the destruction of all paean temples within the Empire, an order executed with much severity and cruelty. In the same year, Zeno, Emperor of the East, closed the important school at Edessa and its Nestorian teachers were banished, finding refuse in Asia. The Museum of Alexandria, a real university, still maintained a precarious existence until 415 when in riots incited by the Christians, the last remnants of Alexandrian schools of philosophy and science were swept away and the last notable teacher and philosopher of that school, Hypatia (370 - 415) fell a victim to the violence of the mob. When the Muslim State ruled Asia Minor, the Syrian scholars were patronized by the Caliphs, were employed in influential positions as physicians, astronomers, mathematicians, engineers, etc., and the Syrian manuscripts of Greek and Alexandrian authors were translated into Arabian. The early Muslim culture was more hospitable to these ancient sciences and philosophies than the early Christian, and thus Arabians became in medieval times the best trained scholars in mathematics astronomy, medicine and chemistry.

33. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Balthasar Boncompagni It is supposed to be a translation of the famous treatise on arithmetic of Alkhwarizmi, the most illustrious of the Arabian mathematicians. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02654a.htm

Home Encyclopedia Summa Fathers ... B > Balthasar Boncompagni Balthasar Boncompagni Italian mathematician, b. at Rome , 10 May, 1821; d. 13 April, 1894. He was a member of the illustrious family to which had belonged Gregory XIII , the reformer of the calendar . He studied mathematics and physics under Santucci and became known as a prolific writer on mathematical and historical subjects. At an early age (1840) he contributed to the "Giornale Arcadico" biographical sketches of Father Joseph Calandrelli, director of the observatory of the Roman College after the suppression of the Society of Jesus ", which appeared in "Crelle's Journal" (Berlin). In 1846 the "Giornale Arcadico" published his "Studi intorno ad alcuni avanzamenti della fisica in Italia nei secoli XVI e XVIII". In 1847 he became a member of the Accademia dei Lincei and shortly after its librarian. Boncompagni contributed much to the study of the history of mathematics by his "Bolletino", which he founded in 1868 and conducted until 1887. To it he contributed numerous essays, biographies, reviews, etc. Among his essays published before the founding of the "Bolletino" may be mentioned, "Della vita e delle opere di Gherardo Cremonese traduttore del secolo XII" (1850); "Gherardo da Sabionetta, astronomo del secolo XIII" (1851); "Della vita e delle opere di Guido Bonatti" (1851); "Memoria sopra Leonardo" (1854); "Saggio intorno ad alcune opere di Leonardo" (1854); "Tre scritti inediti di Leonardo da un manoscritto dell' Ambrosiana di Milano" (Florence, 1854); "Intorno ad una

34. Decimal Arithmetic - FAQ 2 Persian and Arabian mathematicians made many contributions (including the concept of the decimal fractions as an extension of the notation), and the written European form http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decifaq2.html

Decimal Arithmetic FAQ Contents back to FAQ contents What does Algorism mean? ... etc. What does Algorism mean? Algorism is the name for the Indo-Arabic decimal system of writing and working with numbers, in which symbols (the ten digits through 9) are used to describe values using a place value system, where each symbol has ten times the weight of the one to its right. This system was originally invented in India in the 6th century AD (or earlier), and was soon adopted in Persia and in the Arab world. Persian and Arabian mathematicians made many contributions (including the concept of the decimal fractions as an extension of the notation), and the written European form of the digits is derived from the ghubar (sand-table or dust-table) numerals used in north-west Africa and Spain. The word algorism comes from the Arabic al-Kowarizmi early-9th-century mathematician , possibly from what is now Khiva in western Uzbekistan. (From whose name also comes the word algorithm See also Wikipedia: Algorism What does precision mean?

35. Dissection (mathematics) In the 10th century, Arabian mathematicians described several dissections in their commentaries on Euclid's Elements. The 18thcentury Chinese scholar Tai Chen http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/D/dissection.html

GAMES AND PUZZLES GEOMETRY A B ... CONTACT entire Web this site dissection (mathematics) Cutting apart one or more figures and rearranging the pieces to make another figure. Dissection puzzles have been around for thousands of years. The problem of dissecting two equal squares to form one larger square using four pieces dates back to at least the time of Plato BC ). In the 10th century, Arabian mathematicians described several dissections in their commentaries on Euclid's Elements . The 18th-century Chinese scholar Tai Chen presented an elegant dissection for approximating the value of pi . Others worked out dissection proofs of Pythagorean theorem In the 19th century, dissection puzzles by Sam Loyd , Henry Dudeney , and others became tremendously popular in magazine and newspaper columns. A classic example is the Haberdasher's Puzzle . Dissections can get quite elaborate: an eight-piece octahedron becomes a hexagon, a nine-piece five-pointed star becomes a pentagon, and so on. See also: Blanche's dissection cake-cutting, or fair division

36. Balthasar Boncompagni It is supposed to be a translation of the famous treatise on arithmetic of Alkhwarizmi, the most illustrious of the Arabian mathematicians. Nuova Enciclopedia Italiana, Suppl., 6th http://www.catholicity.com/encyclopedia/b/boncompagni,balthasar.html

37. Down With SEX! Fooey on the ancient Sumerians who invented the sexagesimal system and three cheers for the Arabian mathematicians who gave us the decimal system! http://www.jbasicnews.com/9/down.html

Down with SEX! by Welopez Sexagesimal arithmetic, that is. I can get my head around degrees (360 in a circle), minutes (1/60th of a degree) and seconds (1/60th of a minute), but it sure gets confusing when you begin doing arithmetic with deg°min'sec" and trying to add/subtract or multiply/divide with them. Fooey on the ancient Sumerians who invented the sexagesimal system and three cheers for the Arabian mathematicians who gave us the decimal system! The ancient Sumerians used the sexagesimal (base 60) form of arithmetic somewhere between 3000 and 6000 BCE. That was quite a few years back! Ancient Babylonians adopted and improved upon the sexagesimal system as they were excellent astronomers and very interested in the motion of planetary bodies as they moved through the 12 astrological houses. The Babylonians knew the Earth and planets revolved around the sun, and used that knowledge to predict the position of the planets for any given date. Europeans, however, were still wedded to the concept of the Earth being the center of the solar system until well into the 17th century. Current use of the sexagesimal system is pretty much limited to astronomy, telling time and plotting the users geographic coordinates of latitude and longitude on the surface of the Earth. Many pocket calculators can make the conversion between angles using the decimal system and angles using the sexigesimal system with the push of a button.

38. The Hindu : Young World : Ancient Algebra Arabian mathematicians also made significant contributions to algebra. Muhammad alKhwarizmi, who lived sometime between 780 and 850, wrote three books on mathematics. http://www.hindu.com/yw/2005/09/16/stories/2005091600110200.htm

Online edition of India's National Newspaper Friday, Sep 16, 2005 Young World Published on Fridays Features: Magazine Literary Review Life Metro Plus ... Young World WORLD OF SCIENCE Ancient algebra DR. T. V. PADMA The Bakhshali manuscript covers a variety of topics from fractions to equations. In 1858, an amazing discovery was made. Eighty-four arithmetic and algebraic problems, together with their solutions, were on a piece of papyrus from ancient Egypt. This manuscript was dated at 1650 B.C.E. Ahmes, a scribe had copied it out from an even older original document. In 1881, in Northwest India, a farmer found a stone enclosure. Within it, were 70 bits of birch bark on which was something written in ancient Sanskrit. He recognised that he had found something incredibly important. But much of it was destroyed when it was examined. Luckily, it has been preserved at Oxford. From India This document, called the Bakhshali manuscript, is probably the oldest Indian mathematical text that seems completely devoid of any religious connotation. It covers a variety of topics: fractions, square roots, quadratic equations, simultaneous equations, arithmetic and geometric progressions, profit, loss, and interest. There are symbols to denote negative numbers ( this symbol looks like the modern + symbols, which of course we now use for positive numbers). Numbers that are multiplied are placed next to one another, and numbers that are divided are placed one on top of the other. There is even a symbol that denotes the unknown, when solving algebraic equations.

39. History Of The Hindu-Arabic Numeral System Arabian mathematicians made many contributions (including the concept of the decimal fractions as an extension of the notation, which led to the notion of the decimal point), and http://www.experiencefestival.com/history_of_the_hindu-arabic_numeral_system

40. Arabic Numerals - Conservapedia The only connection with Arabs is that they communicated this system to Europe in the A.D. 900s, through Arabian mathematicians. Most Arabs did not use these Indian numerals. http://www.conservapedia.com/Arabic_numerals

Arabic numerals From Conservapedia Jump to: navigation search Arabic numerals are the number system most commonly used in the world: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. The term "Arabic numeral" is a misnomer that originated in 1847. The more accurate term is "Hindu-Arabic numeral", as the origin of the numerals is Hinduism in India between 400 B.C. and A.D. 400. The only connection with Arabs is that they communicated this system to Europe in the A.D. 900s, through Arabian mathematicians . Most Arabs did not use these Indian numerals. Note that Hindu-Arabic numerals include zero (0): Asian Indians were the first to discover and use this concept. Westerners such as King John of England learned about Hindu-Arabic numerals as early as A.D. 1200, but there was resistance to converting from the Roman numeral system. It was not until the early 1500s, around the same time as the Reformation , that Hindu-Arabic numerals became widely used in Western Europe. Numerals in the Arab World Despite the name as "Arabic numerals", the numerals used in the Arabic writing system are notably different, except for the "1" and "9". Number: (the Arabic numerals) Arabic: I o V (numerals in the Arab World) Note how the Arab 6 looks like a seven ("7"). In typical usage, the Arab numeric symbols are more curved (than shown above), similar to the curvature of letters in the Arabic alphabet.

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